What do calves need

Each cow that enters the maternity pen brings in pathogens. Properly managing newborn calves can reduce disease risk.

Wash, disinfect and dry individual hutches, stalls or pens between calves. Scrape the ground to a fresh level of dirt and remove all leftover organic material. Milk can rapidly ferment and cause acidosis if it ends up in the reticulorumen.

When calves are born, they are essentially simple stomached animals without a functioning rumen. Another potential reason for forestomach acidosis is feeding more milk then the abomasum can hold.

Many farms have a policy to tube every newborn calf with one gallon of colostrum shortly after birth. This is a good guideline for average size Holstein calves weighing 85 to 95 pounds. Calves born early Jerseys and many crossbred calves are much smaller than Holsteins. Smaller calves have smaller abomasa and are at high risk of milk reflux.

A better guideline is to only tube colostrum at 10 percent of a calf's birth weight. Only tube colostrum once and follow up with a bottle. Everything the calf comes in contact with should be clean and dry, especially the bottles and buckets. Following these steps and using the correct soaps and acid will emulsify the fats and break down the carbohydrates and proteins.

It is important to have the correct size and shape of brushes to clean bottles and especially esophageal tubes. Equipment will not get clean by just rinsing with hot or soapy water. Do not forget to replace brushes on a regular basis. They also can get dirty and harbor pathogenic bacteria. Provide fresh, clean calf starter, milk replacer and water every day. Make sure you offer water at least twice daily. Place these outside the pen to reduce urine and manure contamination.

Research shows poor nutrition between weaning and 6 months of age can cause these animals to have on average,. You can prevent feed waste by using large buckets and placing them at the proper height according to breed and calf size. Store grain delivered in bulk within a metal bin, which you can move electrically by auger.

Walk-in grain rooms tend to be feeding spots for rodents. Milk, feed and water buckets are breeding grounds for pathogens, disease-causing organisms.

Thus, you should have a routine plan for washing and sanitizing utensils during calf chores. Avoid using feed buckets with scratches plastic or rough surfaces that allow bacteria to grow on them. Have enough utensils so you can clean and disinfect them between uses, especially with sick calves. Always disinfect shared nipples or buckets between calves. Milk residue inactivates the chlorine and leads to poor disinfection. Sanitize balling guns and stomach tubes with chlorhexidine 3 ounces per gallon.

Avoid using common esophageal feeders for tubing newborn calves with colostrum and sick calves with fluids. Keep feed, feed areas and feeding utensils free of manure. Make sure boots, tools, and equipment are clean. Be aware of your utensil storage area. Most storage areas are ideal for bacterial growth—moist, no sunlight, poor air flow. Research shows that these conditions allow bacteria to reproduce at least once an hour and often twice in the same time.

Rinse containers with lukewarm water before washing. Hot water makes the milk proteins stick to the surfaces. Use a water-bleach solution for washing: 1 cup of household-strength bleach to 5 gallons of hot water. If you have calves with scours, use 1. Soak utensils in water-bleach solution for as long as possible. The longer the utensils soak, the more bacteria the chlorine will kill.

When pouring from pail to pail, let the solution sit in each pail for as long as possible. Use a wash acid at about 1 ounce to 5 gallons of lukewarm water. This will rid containers of remaining milk solids. A lower surface pH prevents most bacteria from growing. Calf housing should be completely separate from the main dairy housing barn and have separate ventilation.

Keep ventilation inlets and windows screened at all times to control flies. Also be sure the hutches drain water and urine, so the calves stay dry. They are also easy to clean. Monitor air temperature and quality throughout the day in greenhouses. This will allow you to adjust the natural ventilation as needed to make the environment good for calves. Move pens away from the sidewalls if rain or snow blows in. Using a well-graded stone base will promote draining.

Disease resistance differs between calves of different ages. Group post-weaned calves by age and size with three to five animals per group. Groups of 6 to 12 are ok when calves reach about 4 months of age. Large-group pen housing increases the odds of respiratory disease and diarrhea. Thus, calves of different ages in large groups are more prone to respiratory illness. Diarrhea in group housing is more severe than cases in individual housing.

As the rumen is not functioning the milk is not digested and ferments causing the calf to scour. If a bucket is used, its base should be placed at least 30cm above the ground to help the oesophageal groove to close. To train a calf to drink from a bucket, back it into a corner, stand astride its neck and place two fingers moistened with milk into its mouth. Whichever method is used, each calf must receive a measured amount of milk daily.

As the calf grows and starts to graze, the other stomachs rumen, reticulum and omasum start to develop. Therefore, it is important to provide clean, good quality hay for the calf to eat to help stimulate rumen development. Scouring can quickly lead to death. A scouring calf should be taken off milk for at least four hours and fed electrolytes. If scours continue, treatment with commercial medication may be warranted, in consultation with a vet. Scour medication should be kept on hand as early treatment can mean the difference between cure and the loss of the calf.

Isolate sick calves. Practicing good hygiene and discarding teats as they deteriorate will help control sickness in hand reared calves. The little critters are hand-raised, loved and sometimes feel more like the family dog than the family heffer.

There are calves everywhere looking for good homes. Raising bottle babies is a fun adventure. If you have always wanted to get into the cattle business but get indigestion when you see cattle prices, a bottle calf may just fit the bill. Candi has spent many years growing and striving toward a more self-sufficient life. She grows vegetables, kills chickens, swims with pigs, milks a cow, and loves anything homesteading. She lives out in the country with her husband and 4 awesome children.

She likes doing things the old fashioned way. I have recently become a decision maker for the farm with the passing of my husband. Do bottle fed bulls grow up to be as effective as other bulls? Are there problems with a bottle fed bull that I need to know about? Bull calves can be raised successfully on a bottle for any purpose. The key is to provide sound nutrition early in life to get them off to a strong start and introduce high quality dry feed as soon as possible.

Bottle-calves can grow more slowly early in but often catch up with peers later in life. Also, due to the increased handling that the calves receive, bottle-calves are often more comfortable around people. Want to get about 6 bottle fed calves how much time per. In reply to Want to get about 6 bottle … by George Bundy Bundy. You have to have a plan to manage feeling all those guys. Probably only going to work to feed one at a time though.

I feed bottle calves and it takes me about fifteen minutes depending on how fast they eat. You can hold 2 bottles at a time if you get the right hold, but if you do it that way I would stay on on side of a fence that has gaps big enough for the bottle.

We are currently bottle feeding four calves. We have bottle holders that slide on a wood plank which makes it much easier. Just be sure to take the bottles before they suck in air. My wife took a calf as her pet, it was born a month and a half early, it has severe front leg issues, but it has always ate very well.

It has magor issues with trying to walk, and now the eating is something it just cant do, any suggestions? In reply to My wife took a calf as her… by Willy. Sad thing is the older and larger the calf gets, the more pressure on its legs, and more pain it is in. Future is not bright for this little calf. I have a calf that is now 6 days old.

I had to bottle feed , momma would not let him nurse. He just doesn't want the bottle. I have tubed him a couple times. He will suck once or twice then stop. I have used a turkey batter instead of keep tubing.

I figure he has to swallow. Can you give me any ideas on how to get him to stay sucking the bottle. I don't want to give up on him. He is a little brahman bull and very stubborn. Any supplements I can give him to make him want to suck or make him stronger? Thank you. In reply to I have a calf that is now 6… by Peggy Gaddis. We bought a 1 week old alleged brahman steer black. He wouldn't drink from a bottle either.

However, this is due largely to stretching, not real growth, of the rumen tissue. In calves fed milk and grain papillae grow larger and the rumen walls thicken as calves get older. In comparison, calves fed milk and hay until 8 or 12 weeks have very limited papillae development, and the rumen walls remain thin, despite the consumption of appreciable amounts of hay. In fact, the rumen development of a 4-week-old calf on milk and grain is greater than that of a week-old calf fed milk and hay.

Rumen development of calves fed milk, grain, and hay will vary from calf to calf depending on individual preferences for dry feedstuffs. The bottom line is that a small amount of grain, along with water, will create fermentation and, therefore, butyric acid production in the rumen.

This, in turn, enhances the development of a more functional rumen that can better digest grains and, later in life, forages. The process of rumen papillae growth is self-generating and allows grain-fed calves to have a tremendous amount of rumen development at an early age — 3 to 4 weeks. Early rumen development and therefore earlier weaning are the reasons to feed grain early. Calves started on grain late or those that consume too little grain at a young age are at a definite disadvantage.

Figure 3. Comparison of rumen papillae development at 6 weeks in calves fed milk only A , milk and grain B , or milk and hay C. Note the marked differences in papillae length and color.

Colostrum is the first milk produced after a normal dry period and mammary involution, or the first milk secreted by a heifer, and it is an essential part of a newborn calf's survival. As the newborn's first food source, colostrum provides essential nutrients to increase metabolism and stimulate digestive activity.

Colostrum is also the source of passive immune protection that is essential for keeping the calf healthy. The quality, quantity, and timing of colostrum feeding are major factors affecting calf morbidity and mortality. True colostrum contains twice as much dry matter and minerals and five times as much protein as whole milk Table 2.

It is also higher in energy and vitamins. The high content of fat and vitamins A, D, and E in colostrum are especially important because the newborn calf has low reserves of these nutrients. In addition, the relatively low lactose content of true colostrum reduces the incidence of diarrhea. Colostrum also contains immunoglobulins antibodies , which are critical in providing the calf with immunity from infectious diseases. In the bovine, antibodies cannot cross the placental wall and pass directly from the dam to the fetus.

Instead, the calf receives immunity by consuming adequate amounts of colostrum within the first few hours after birth. During the first 24 hours after birth, the calf can absorb antibodies directly from the gut into the bloodstream without digesting them.

This type of protection, from the dam to the calf via colostrum, is called "passive immunity. The gap between passive immunity provided by colostrum and the calf's own immunity creates a period where the calf is at greater risk of illness Figure 4. Figure 4. Antibodies from colostrum protect calves until their own immune systems are fully functional. The immunoglobulin content of colostrum ranges from 2 to 23 percent, compared to only about 0.

Immunoglobulin content is directly related to the percentage of solids in the colostrum, which ranges from 17 to 36 percent. The percentage of antibodies in colostrum decreases rapidly with each milking.

Usually, the second milking contains 60 to 70 percent as many immunoglobulins as the first milking Table 2. IgG constitutes 80 to 85 percent of all immunoglobulins in colostrum and provides immunity against a wide variety of systemic infections and disease. IgA comprises 8 to 10 percent of the immunoglobulins, and IgM makes up 5 to 12 percent.

IgG is not only the most prevalent type, it also lasts the longest in the calf's bloodstream. Two factors dictate colostrum quality: immunoglobulin concentration specifically IgG and the presence or absence of bacteria. Management practices have limited control over IgG concentration, but it can be measured easily, and feeding practices can be managed around it.

On the other hand, proper management can ensure low bacterial loads and high quality, clean colostrum. IgG concentration in colostrum varies tremendously due to a variety of factors, including the disease history and exposure of each cow, the volume of colostrum produced, the season of the year, dry cow nutrition, and breed.

Cows produce antibodies in response to pathogens to which they have been exposed. Cows exposed to a greater number of pathogens tend to produce colostrum with more immunoglobulins than cows exposed to fewer pathogens.

This explains why older cows often produce colostrum with a greater number and variety of immunoglobulins than younger cows. However, if older cows are not exposed to many pathogens, their colostrum may not have high levels of antibodies.

Heifers raised on other farms, where they are not exposed to the same pathogens as lactating cows, also produce inferior colostrum. An older cow on your farm produces the best quality colostrum, and a first-calf heifer raised at another location and moved to the farm a few days before freshening produces the poorest.

Although it is true that older cows often produce colostrum with higher IgG concentration than first- or second-lactation animals, research has shown that in some herds heifers produce colostrum with adequate IgG. Discarding colostrum based on the first milking volume or by lactation number of the cow can unnecessarily restrict colostrum supply.

Instead, test all colostrum and feed or discard based on the estimated IgG content. A good dry cow and heifer vaccination program can improve colostrum quality. Vaccines stimulate increased maternal antibody production and aid in passively immunizing the calf.

The dam can be vaccinated against rotavirus, coronavirus, clostridium, and E. The large amount of variation in colostrum quality can make feeding and managing this critical feed challenging. Colostral IgG can be measured in a lab with great accuracy, but the tests are expensive and time-consuming.

While high quality colostrum containing a large percentage of immunoglobulins is typically very thick and creamy, appearance alone is not a good indicator of quality.

Volume of first-milking colostrum also can be misleading and is not a recommended method for estimating colostrum immunoglobulin content. Fortunately, there are a simple devices that can be used to quickly estimate colostrum IgG content. The colostromater estimates IgG content by measuring the specific gravity or density of colostrum, which is correlated with antibody concentration.

When it is placed in a container of colostrum, colored areas on the scale indicate whether the colostrum is acceptable or unacceptable for feeding newborn calves. Another method of testing colostrum is a Brix refractometer, which measures the bending of light as it passes through the sample. The scale in a Brix refractometer was originally designed to measure the amount of sucrose in a solution, but Brix values can be correlated to IgG.

To use a Brix refractometer, a few drops of colostrum are placed on the prism and the sample cover is lowered. Brix refractometers are available in both digital and optical models. Optical refractometers are held up perpendicular to a light source. The Brix value is read at the line between the light and dark areas that appear on the scale. For colostrum samples, digital models may be easier to use, because high fat content of colostrum often causes a blurred band, rather than a distinct line, on the optical refractometer scale.

This band can make it difficult to determine the exact Brix value and reduces the repeatability of measurements. Digital refractometers seem to be able to read these high-fat samples accurately.

Brix refractometers are available for solutions with a wide range of sugar content. A scale that starts at zero and goes to approximately 35 provides a good range for testing colostrum.

When using a refractometer, the prism and sample cover must be thoroughly cleaned after every sample to avoid residue that could affect the next measurement. It is a good practice to check the calibration of the refractometer occasionally. The manufacturer should provide instructions on checking and adjusting the calibration, but distilled water should produce a reading of zero when the instrument is properly calibrated.

Colostrum quality is typically expressed in terms of IgG, but contaminants also influence quality. Obviously, fewer contaminants mean higher quality. Common contaminants include bacteria, blood, and remnants of mastitis infections white blood cells, infectious organisms, endotoxins, and antibiotic residues. Good, clean colostrum can be compromised if a cow's udder and teats are not well-cleaned, sanitized, and dried before the initial milking or nursing.

Do not feed excessively bloody or mastitic colostrum. Regularly maintain and clean milking equipment, especially waste milk cans and their lids. These containers should be cleaned and sanitized just like other milking equipment to minimize bacterial contamination of colostrum. Another key to keeping bacteria levels in check is feeding or cooling colostrum as soon as possible within 30 minutes of milking. The warm, nutrient-rich liquid is an excellent environment for bacteria to grow.

Large breed calves should receive 4 quarts of undiluted colostrum within one hour of birth, or 2 quarts within an hour and an additional 2 quarts within 6 to 8 hours. Small breed calves can be fed 3 quarts within the first hour. Since many calves will not or cannot drink this large amount at one time, an esophageal feeder may be used to feed all or part of the colostrum. Research shows calves can absorb IgG with similar efficiency whether fed from a bottle or an esophageal feeder.

However, rough handling when using a tube feeder can injure calves. Procedures for using an esophageal feeder are described later in this article. Nursing is an unreliable method for feeding colostrum, and 40 percent of calves allowed to nurse on their own do not drink enough colostrum.

Only 25 percent will get adequate colostrum within the first hour after birth. Quality, quantity, and timing all may be compromised by nursing. The level of IgG necessary to provide adequate protection to the calf will vary depending on the pathogen load in colostrum and the environment, stress, housing, and feeding practices. Other factors include the calf's size and the efficiency of IgG absorption.

It is important to understand that feeding a large volume of colostrum cannot overcome low antibody concentration or high bacterial contamination. Volume is not the only factor determining the successful transfer of immunity from cow to calf. Timing of colostrum feeding is critically important for two reasons: the short-lived ability to absorb large molecules and the potential for pathogenic bacterial colonization of the intestine.

The cells lining the intestine begin to mature shortly after birth. This maturation process makes cells unable to absorb intact macromolecules by about 24 hours of age. In addition, for a limited time after birth, the secretion of digestive enzymes remains low, allowing antibodies to escape digestion and enabling maximum absorption. By about 12 hours after birth, enzyme secretion increases, thereby reducing the antibodies' ability to reach the blood.

Stressed calves typically have even less time to absorb antibodies than normal calves. Calves born to dams that experienced heat stress before calving have also been found to absorb less IgG. At best, only 50 percent of the antibodies a calf consumes ever reach the bloodstream. This is measured by apparent efficiency of absorption, which is rarely over 50 percent and frequently less than 35 percent. Within 6 hours, the average ability of the gut walls to absorb immunoglobulins decreases by one-third.

By 24 hours, the walls absorb less than 10 percent of what could originally be absorbed Figure 5. Figure 5. The calf's ability to absorb antibodies declines rapidly over the first 24 hours. Source: Journal of Dairy Science, However, antibodies in colostrum may help fight infectious organisms in the calf's digestive tract beyond 24 hours. The unabsorbed antibodies line the calf's intestinal tract, providing a protective coating that prevents micro-organisms from attaching to the wall.

This defense mechanism is inhibited if bacteria such as E. Early bacterial inoculation of the gut creates another problem: immature intestinal cells can absorb infectious organisms as well as antibodies. If bacteria enter the bloodstream before antibodies, the calf has an extremely high risk of death. Bacteria in colostrum also can interfere with IgG absorption. Therefore, the colostrum and the calf must be kept as clean as possible.

Table 3. Effects of early colostrum feeding on intestinal E. In many cases, colostrum quality can be improved by heat treatment pasteurization , which reduces bacterial contamination. Pasteurization may provide an added benefit of higher serum total protein concentrations in calves. In most research trials, calves fed heat-treated colostrum had higher IgG concentrations in their blood and improved apparent efficiency compared to calves fed unheated colostrum.

Colostrum can be successfully pasteurized in batch systems or in individual bags within a water bath. However, the success of on-farm pasteurization is strongly related to management of the system. Chill colostrum pre- and postpasteurization if it is not used immediately. Monitor the time and temperature of pasteurization and cleaning processes, and test bacteria levels before and after pasteurization periodically. Keep in mind that the temperature of pasteurizing colostrum is important.

There are many commercial systems for pasteurizing colostrum and thawing it. Storage and handling influence colostrum quality. Do not let colostrum sit at room temperature; even half an hour at room temperature during the summer may allow bacterial populations to double.

The same problem with bacterial growth can occur after frozen colostrum is thawed. Pouring off the liquid portion periodically as colostrum thaws and putting it in the refrigerator will limit bacterial growth.

Storing high quality colostrum is a good management practice. Surplus colostrum can then be used when good quality, fresh colostrum is not available for a newborn calf. For long-term colostrum storage, freezing is the best alternative. One report indicated that colostrum was stored for up to 15 years without serious deterioration.

Frost-free freezers are not optimal for long-term colostrum storage, as they go through freeze-thaw cycles that can allow the colostrum to thaw. Repeated freeze-thaw cycles markedly shorten colostrum storage life.

Freezing colostrum in 2-quart bottles or 1-gallon plastic bags with zipper-closure is an excellent method of storage. Alternately, colostrum can be thawed in a microwave oven with little damage to the antibodies.

It is important to microwave colostrum for short periods on low power and pour off liquid periodically to minimize heating. Also avoid "hot spots" inside frozen colostrum. Use of a turntable can help to minimize antibody damage. Research has indicated that white blood cells leukocytes present in colostrum also contribute to the health of calves.

Leukocytes in colostrum reduce the effects of bacterial disease in young calves. Leukocytes are killed by frozen storage and are found only in fresh colostrum. Although additional research is needed, it appears that using fresh colostrum from the dam may be the best way to get these disease-fighting cells into calves.

It is ideal to keep enough frozen colostrum on hand to feed several calves. A package of frozen colostrum should be used when colostrum is of questionable quality or when it is not available. In some herds, the supply of disease-free, high-quality colostrum is very limited, and replacer or supplement products can provide viable options for ensuring adequate immunity in calves.

In other cases, the consistency and convenience of colostrum products is preferred over testing, sorting, and storing maternal colostrum. Colostrum supplements are intended to be added to marginal colostrum when no other source of colostrum is available. Products designed to replace colostrum contain more immunoglobulin than supplement products and provide more antibodies than poor or moderate quality colostrum.

In addition to IgG, these products typically also provide fat, protein, vitamins, and minerals needed by the newborn. Multiple trials have reported acceptable levels of serum IgG and total protein in calves fed various replacer products. However, it is important to select products that are proven to be effective because not all products that have been tested in public research have provided adequate immunity. Generally speaking, the quality and effectiveness of colostrum replacer products have improved in recent years.

Success in providing adequate immune protection to calves can be monitored by taking blood samples from calves at 24 to 48 hours of age and measuring serum total protein using a refractometer with either a total protein or Brix scale.

Total protein in serum is highly correlated to IgG levels. If calves have received enough high quality colostrum, serum total protein will be 5. When total protein falls between 5. Total serum protein levels less than 5. On average, 90 percent of calves should achieve at least 5. When using a Brix refractometer, 8. We cannot prevent exposure to intestinal and respiratory pathogens.

However, colostrum-derived immunity can significantly diminish the severity of these infections. While the exposure dose of a given pathogen strongly influences disease severity, the calf's immunity can mitigate these effects. In a colostrum-fed calf, a low dose of a given pathogen results in subclinical disease no visible sickness and an immune response to the pathogen.

The calf's own immune system thus protects it from future infections by that pathogen. The "clinical threshold dose" the level of exposure that results in disease is considerably lower for colostrum-deprived calves than for colostrum-fed calves Figure 6. The number of organisms needed to cause disease is much lower in calves that have not acquired immunity from colostrum antibodies. Beyond the clinical threshold dose, the greater the pathogen exposure is, the more severe the illness.

Calves with colostrum-acquired immunity can be exposed to larger pathogen doses yet suffer less severe illnesses than colostrum-deprived calves.

Figure 6. Relationship between exposure dose of pathogen and severity of disease. Source: Adapted from D. Hancock, Dairy Herd Management, Feb.